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На протяжении своей многовековой истории русский
народ создал архитектуру мирового значения. Замечательные памятники русского
зодчества служат глубоким, неисчерпаемым источником практической народной
мудрости, архитектурного опыта, технических достижений и художественного
мастерства.
История русской архитектуры насчитывает более тысячелетия. Это
сложная история взаимодействия с зодчеством различных стран, создания и развития собственной традиции, и
затем долгих споров о самобытности архитектуры России.
Первые каменные храмы Киевской Руси были построены греческими византийскими мастерами. Они стали учителями русских зодчих. Таким образом, Русь была приобщена к традиции каменного (и кирпичного) строительства,
восходящей к Древнему Риму. Однако, как и в других европейских странах, в Киевской Руси до принятия христианства существовала собственная традиция деревянного
строительства, на долгое время определившая облик деревенских домов
средневековья.
В железном веке вполне сложились главные типы основного поселения России - деревни. Вначале избы в
деревне стояли неправильной группой ("кучевой план"). После крещения Руси (988-989) в больших деревнях и
селах избы ставились вокруг церкви ("кольцевой план" с площадью в центре). После реформ Петра I в ХVIII и ХIХ веках деревни перестраивались по "уличному плану" (главные улицы шли
параллельно реке или большой дороге). Избы строились без единого гвоздя,
"венцы" бревен укладывались снизу доверху.
Первый период расцвета городского каменного зодчества - X - первая половина XIII века - время
существования мощного государства Древняя (Киевская) Русь. Языческие святилища "громовержца" Перуна были открытыми площадками круглой
или многолепестковой формы. С утверждением христианского культа в городах Древней Руси были построены грандиозные храмы, где
население города могло собираться для литургии, слушания проповедей,
празднования свадеб, крещения детей и других торжеств. Киевский многоглавый
собор Святой Софии и белокаменный просторный Софийский собор в Новгороде были богато украшены мозаикой, фресками,
светильниками.
В XII веке центр Древней Руси переместился на северо-восток, во Владимир и Суздаль. Церковь в Кидекше близ Суздаля, Успенский и Дмитриевский соборы во Владимире и жемчужина русской архитектуры, церковь Покрова на реке Нерли составили новый блестящий этап зодчества России.
Новый стремительный подъем российского зодчества приходится уже на ХV-ХVI века - время
освобождения от татаро-монгольского ига, рождения Российского царства с центром в Москве. Первые храмы в Московском Кремле и в Звенигороде похожи на владимирские, но в их вертикальной
устремленности есть нечто родственное европейской готике.
ХVII век ознаменован массовым строительством кирпичных церквей, гостиных
дворов, дворцов и особняков, богато украшенных узорной кладкой, цветными
изразцами, терракотовыми деталями. Не менее пышно расцвело деревянное
зодчество: дворцы (деревянный царский дворец в Коломенском), укрепления, сельские храмы. Заповедник Кижи на
Онежском озере хранит чудеса народного деревянного зодчества.
С начала ХVIII
века Россия присоединилась к
европейскому пути развития архитектуры. Новая великолепная столица Санкт-Петербург получила небывалый на Pycи регулярный план: в излучине Невы трезубец
проспектов, ориентированных на Адмиралтейство, каналы - линии на Васильевском острове. Однако элементы регулярного плана вводились и
в Москве (Красная, Театральная, Лубянская площади), в больших и малых городах
и даже в деревнях. В течение ХVIII века вводилась типовая застройка по
"образцовым" проектам для людей разного состояния. Дворцы императоров и знати демонстрируют смену
стилей, более быструю, чем на Западе.
При Петре I вначале преобладал прозаичный комфортабельный
голландско-немецкий классицизм, но к концу его царствования (особенно npи его преемниках) стало
утверждаться пышное, представительное зодчество барокко (Двенадцать коллегий
Доменико Трезини в Петербурге, двoрец с водным каскадом, фонтанами и каналом в Петергофе).
При Елизавете Петровне Растрелли создал великолепный, торжественный, полный
парадного величия стиль, сочетающий черты классицизма (размах строгих
прямолинейных планов), барокко (пластичность, динамика архитектурной и
скульптурной обработки фасадов) и рококо (прихотливый криволинейный узор,
раскраска в "приятные глазу" тона). Екатерина II предпочла классицизм - один из самых
привлекательных в мировом зодчестве, сочетающий строгость линий, мягкую
пластику, нежность отделки: Чарльз Камерон (ансамбль в Павловске, галерея в Царском Ceлe), Антонио Ринальди (Мраморный дворец
в Петербурге, "Китайский дворец" в Ораниенбауме), Юрий Фельтен (решетка Летнего сада в Петербурге).
Вершина русского классического стиля - русский ампир ("поздний классицизм"). При
Павле I и Александре I в
Петербурге выстроены целые районы, грандиозные ансамбли, пpидавшие Петербургу
имперское величие и размах, достойные народа, победившего в наполеоновских войнах грозного противника. Биржа Тома де Томона, Казанский собор и Горный институт Андрея Воронихина и особенно колоссальные и вместе с тем
стилистически очень цельные комплексы Карло Росси.
При Николае I классицизм уступил место направлению,
называемому эклектикой или историзмом, суть которого заключается в подражании
древнерусскому искусству, готике, Ренессансу, барокко. Наиболее знамениты Большой Кремлевский дворец, храм Христа Спасителя, построенные в
русско-византийском стиле Константином Тоном. Постройки ХIХ века - фабрики, вокзалы, пассажи - часто
поражают новизной композиции, отвечающей новым функциям, новизной конструкций
из металла и стекла. Следует отметить, что именно постройки XIX столетия определяют облик большей части городов России.
К концу XIX - началу XX века относятся поиски нового,
цельного стиля в архитектуре. Новая архитектура
начинается с работ живописцев, когда Bиктор Васнецов спроектировал в Абрамцеве под Москвой церковь и "избушку на курьих ножках",
а Ф.О. Шехтель особняк С.П. Рябушинского.
В первые годы советской власти великие конструктивисты Веснины, Константин Мельников, Иван Леонидов, Моисей Гинзбург, Георгий Гольц в аскетическом, но полном
зажигательной утопической фантазии стиле строили фабрики, дома-коммуны для
коллективного быта, дома культуры, фабрики-кухни и прочее выдумки отчаянных
революционных фантазеров.
На рубеже 20-30-х годов сталинский режим заменил эту утопию другой, основанной на парадных образах классицизма:
Борис Иофан, создавший проект Дворца Советов, Дмитрий Чечулин, Аркадий Мордвинов изменили облик
многих городов Советского Союза.
После Великой Отечественной войны "сталинский ампир", "стиль
триумф" стал стилем восстановленных городов - Волгограда, Минска, Киева. Расточительное строительство,
изобилующее украшениями - колоннами , портиками, скульптурой, продолжалось до
хрущевской "оттепели", когда разгулу
"украшательства" был положен конец, а на его место был поставлены
однообразные, всюду одинаковые пятиэтажные "коробки", главной целью
которых было срочно дать жилье миллионам бездомных жертв индустриализации и войны.
Это массовое дешевое строительство продолжается
и сейчас, но после "перестройки" на лучшее места в городах выдвинулась
банки, офисы в духе "постмодернизма" с башнями, криволинейными
крышами, бетонно-стеклянными фасадами. В пригородах появились причудливые
коттеджи. Лучшие зодчие наших дней активно ищут новые возможности стиля реконструируемых городов.
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Russian architecture follows a tradition whose roots were
established in the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan
Rus'. After the fall of Kiev, Russian architectural history continued in the principalities
of Vladimir-Suzdal, and Novgorod, and the succeeding states of Tsardom of Moscow, the Russian
Empire, the Soviet Union, and the modern Russian Federation.
Medieval Rus' (988–1230)
The medieval state of Kievan
Rus' was the predecessor of modern states of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine and
their respective cultures, including architecture.
The great churches of Kievan Rus', built after
the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first
examples of monumental architecture in the East Slavic lands. The
architectural style of the Kievan state which quickly established itself was
strongly influenced by the Byzantine. Early Eastern
Orthodox churches were mainly made of wood with the simplest form of
church becoming known as a cell church. Major cathedrals often featured scores
of small domes, which led some art historians to take this as an indication
of what the pagan Slavic temples should have looked like.
Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod
(1044-52), on the other hand, expressed a new style that exerted a strong
influence on Russian church architecture. Its austere thick walls, small
narrow windows, and helmeted cupolas have much in common with the Romanesque architecture of
Secular architecture of Kievan
Rus' has scarcely survived. Up to the twentieth century, only the Golden Gates of Vladimir,
despite much eighteenth-century restoration, could be regarded as an
authentic monument of the pre-Mongolian period. In the 1940s, the
archaeologist Nikolai Voronin discovered
the well-preserved remains of Andrei Bogolyubsky's palace in Bogolyubovo,
dating from 1158-65.
The city of
Church of the Transfiguration of the
savior was built in memorial to Illya. During the raid of the Mongols Illya
saved this city so this church was constructed for him. The church was
constructed in 1374 During this time the city-state of
This church that closely resembles the
church of the transfiguration on
The Mongols looted
the country so thoroughly that even capitals (such as Moscow or Tver) couldn't afford
new stone churches for more than half a century.
The churches of
The fourteenth-century churches of Muscovy are
sparse, and their dating is disputed. Typical monuments—found in Nikolskoe
village near Ruza
(1320s?) and Kolomna
(1310s?)—are diminutive single-domed fortified churches built of roughly-hewn
("wild") stone and capable of withstanding brief sieges. By the
time of the construction of the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod
(1399?), the Muscovite masons managed to regain the mastership of the
pre-Mongolian builders and solved some of the construction problems that had
puzzled their ancestors. Signature monuments of early Muscovite architecture
are to be found in the Holy Trinity Lavra (1423), Savvin
Monastery of Zvenigorod (1405?), and St. Andronik Monastery in Moscow (1427).
By the end of the fifteenth century
Muscovy was so powerful a state that its prestige badly needed magnificent
multi-domed buildings, on the par with pre-Mongolian cathedrals of
Apart from churches, many other
structures date from Ivan III's reign. These include fortifications (Kitai-gorod,
Kremlin
towers, Ivangorod),
towers (Ivan the Great Bell Tower), and palaces
(the Palace of Facets, the Uglich Palace).
The number and variety of extant constructions may be attributed to the fact
that Italian architects persuaded Muscovites to abandon prestigious,
expensive and unwieldy limestone for much cheaper and lighter brick as the
principal construction material.
In the sixteenth century, the key
development was the introduction of tented
roof into brick architecture. Tent-like roof construction is thought to
have originated in the Russian North, as it prevented snow from piling up on
wooden buildings during long winters. In wooden churches (even modern ones)
this type of roof has been very popular.
The first ever tent-like church built in
brick is the Ascension
Tented churches were exceedingly popular
during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Two prime examples dating
from his reign employ several tents of exotic shapes and colours arranged in
a complicated design. These are the
After the Time
of Troubles the state and the church were bankrupt, and could not finance
any construction works. The initiative was taken by rich merchants of the
city Yaroslavl-on-the-Volga. In the
course of the seventeenth century, they built numerous large churches of
cathedral type, with five onion-like cupolas, and
surrounded them with tents of bell
towers and aisles.
At first the churches' composition was sharply asymmetrical, with different
parts balancing each other on the "scale-beam" principle (e.g., the
Church of Elijah the Prophet, 1647-50). Subsequently the
The seventeenth-century
Since the tents were banned, the
Muscovite architects had to replace them with successive rows of corbel arches
("kokoshniki"), and this decorative element was to become a
hallmark of the seventeenth-century
As Russian architecture degenerated into
pure decoration, it was also influenced by the Polish
and Ukrainian Baroque. The first baroque
churches were small chapels built on the Naryshkin
family estates near
The Baroque style quickly spread
throughout
It is also interesting traditional wooden
churches by carpenters of the Russian North. Working without hammer and
nails, they constructed such bizarre structures as the twenty-four-domed
In 1712, Peter I of Russia moved the capital from
During the reign of Empress
Anna and Elizaveta Petrovna, the Russian architecture
was dominated by a luxurious Baroque style of Bartolomeo Rastrelli whose signature
buildings include the Winter Palace, the Catherine
Palace, and the Smolny Cathedral. Other distinctive monuments of
the Elizabethan Baroque are the bell tower of the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra and the Red Gate.
Catherine the Great dismissed Rastrelli and
patronized neoclassical architects invited from Scotland and Italy. Some of the
most representative buildings from her reign are the Alexander
Palace by Giacomo Quarenghi and the Trinity Cathedral of
the Alexander Nevsky Lavra by Ivan
Starov. During Catherine's reign, the Russian Gothic Revival style was
developed by Vasily Bazhenov and Matvei
Kazakov in Moscow.
Alexander I of Russia favoured the Empire
Style, as evidenced by the Kazan
Cathedral, the Admiralty, the Bolshoi
Theatre, St Isaac's Cathedral, and the Narva Triumphal Gates. Later, the nineteenth
century saw a revival of traditional Russian architecture. The
redevelopment of the centre of Moscow saw the Neo-Byzantine construction of
the Great Kremlin Palace (1838-49), the Kremlin
Armoury (1844-1851) and the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour
(1832-1883), all designed by Konstantin
Ton.
In the first year of Soviet Power, all
of the architects who refused to emigrate as well as the new generation
denounced any features of classical heritage in their works and started to
propagate formalism. The most influential of all Revivalist
themes. Giant plans were drawn for massive cities with technical advances.
The most ambitious of all was Tower
of the Third Internationale planned in 1919 by Vladimir
Tatlin (1885-1953), а 400 meter spiral wound around a tilted central axis with rotating
glass chambers. Impossible in real life,
One of the most important priorities in
post-revolutionary period was a mass reconstruction of cities. In 1918 Alexey
Shchusev (1873-1949) and Ivan
Zholtovsky founded the Mossovet Architectural Workshop, where the complex
planning of
In 1919 Petrograd
saw a similar planning and educational setup headed by experienced revivalist
Ivan
Fomin (1872-1936). Other cities followed suit, and the results of the
work carried out there were to make dramatic changes in tradition Russian
city layout. The first large scale development templates generalny plan
were drawn there. Effectively the whole city was planned as a series of new
wide avenues, massive public structures, liquidation of worker quarters and
turning them into proper housing with heating and sanitation. First apartment
building of this period was completed in 1923, followed with a surge of
public housing construction in 1925-1929.
It was in
However the most famous construction of
this time was indeed Lenin's Mausoleum by Alexey Shchusev.
Originally a temporary wooden structure stood, topped with a pyramid, with
two attachments for entrance and departure. In 1930 it was replaced with the present
building set in stone. The combination of dark red and black labradorite
punctuated the slenderness and precision of the construction.
The massive development of technological
processes and materials also influenced on the constuctivist elements in
structure design. During the erection of the Volkhov
Hydroelectric Station (1918-26, architects O.Munts and V.Pokrovsky), the
traditional outlines on the window arches is still used (despite concrete
being employed in construction). However the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station
(1927-32) which was built by the collective of architects headed by Viktor Vesnin (1882-1950) took an
innovative decision that had a curved dam with a rhythmic pattern of
foundations. A large role in the architectural life of 1920s Russia was
played by creative unions, one of which that was formed in 1923, was the
Association of New Architects (Asnova), which put forward an idea of
synthesisng architecture and other creative arts in the way that building
gained an almost sculptural external impression, these were to serve as
visual points for orientation of a human in space. Members of Asnova also
developed the first designs of
Another new creation that came from
post-revolutionary
The symbolical expression of
construction became the showpiece in works designed by Konstantin Melnikov (1890-1974), notably Rusakov Workers' Club (1927-1929) in
Stalinist architecture put a premium on
conservative monumentalism. In the 1930's, there was rapid urbanisation as a
result of Stalin's policies. There was an international competition to build
the Palace of the Soviets in
After 1945, the focus was on rebuilding
the buildings destroyed in World War II but also erecting new ones: seven high-rise buildings were built at
symbolic points in
However after the death of Stalin in
1953, the social and political changes literally turned the country over. The
construction priorities were too affected and as were the architecture. In 1955, Nikita Khrushchev faced with the problem of the
slow paced construction of housing, called for drastic measures to accelerate
the process, and this involved developing new more mass-productive
technologies and removing "decorative extras" from the buildings.
Effectively this put an end to the
Stalinist Architecture, however as the transition was slow, most of the
existing projects, that were in plan or even started to be built by 1955 were
directly affected, the result was at times complete squares becoming
unsymmetric.
The most famous of which took place in
the post-war reconstruction of the Ukrainian capital Kiev where the
planned Kreschatik avenue along with its central square Ploschad Kalinina were to form a single rich
space enclosed by Stalinist constructions. However, as the buildings
enclosing the latter were in process of completion, under direct orders, the
architects were forced to alter them, and as a result the whole ensemble was
left unfinished until only the early 1980s. In particular was Hotel
Ukrayina, that was to crown the square which was originally to look
similar to one of Moscow's "Seven sisters", was
left as a solid shape without the top spire or any of the rich external
decoration.
Nevertheless, as the buildings became
more square and simple, they brought with them a new style fueled by the
Space Age- functionality. The State Kremlin Palace is a merit to an
earlier attempt to make a bridge between the rapidly changing styles as
dictated by the state. The Ostankino
Tower by Nikolai Nikitin is more of symbolism of
technological advances and future.
In terms of simpler buildings, then
1960s are mostly remembered for their massive housing plans. A new typical
project was developed using nothing but concrete panels to make a simple
5-story house. These Pyatietazhki became the most dominant housing
constructions. Although rapidly built, the quality was in nothing compared to
earlier housing and their almost identical look contributed to the grey and
dull stereotype of socialist cities.
As the 1970s opened, Leonid
Brezhnev allowed more choice to the architects, soon housing of varying
calibers were opened. Slowly the flat blocks gained height in floors and in
external decoration, large mosaics on their side became a feature. In almost
all cases these were built not as standalone constructions, but part of a large
estate (housing massif) that soon became a central feature of Socialist
cities. Public buildings were built with varying themes. Some, like the White House of Russia made direct
connections with earlier 1950s architecture, with white marble faced exterior
and large bas-reliefs on the wings.
Modern
As the
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